The Economist · Chapter 9I (7)
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Soc. Yes, considering the distance, (11) the chaff will hardly be carried across the corn into the empty portion of the threshing-floor.
(11) Lit. "it is a long space for the chaff to be carried." Al. (1) "It is of great consequence the chaff should be carried beyond the corn." (2) "It often happens that the corn is blown not only on to the corn, but over and beyond it into the empty portion of the threshing-floor." So Breit.
Isch. But now, suppose you begin winnowing on the "lee" side of the threshing-floor? (12)
(12) Or, "on the side of the threshing-floor opposite the wind." Al. "protected from the wind."
Soc. It is clear the chaff will at once fall into the chaff-receiver. (13)
(13) A hollowed-out portion of the threshing-floor, according to Breitenbach.
Isch. And when you have cleansed the corn over half the floor, will you proceed at once, with the corn thus strewn in front of you, to winnow the remainder, (14) or will you first pack the clean grain into the narrowest space against the central pillar? (15)
(14) Lit. "of the chaff," where we should say "corn," the winnowing process separating chaff from grain and grain from chaff. (15) If that is the meaning of {ton polon}. Al. "the outer edge or rim of the threshing-floor."
Soc. Yes, upon my word! first pack together the clean grain, and proceed. My chaff will now be carried into the empty portion of the floor, and I shall escape the need of winnowing twice over. (16)
(16) Or, "the same chaff (i.e. unwinnowed corn, Angl. corn) twice."
Isch. Really, Socrates, you are fully competent yourself, it seems, to teach an ignorant world (17) the speediest mode of winnowing.
(17) Lit. "After all, Socrates, it seems you could even teach another how to purge his corn most expeditiously."
Soc. It seems, then, as you say, I must have known about these matters, though unconsciously; and here I stand and beat my brains, (18) reflecting whether or not I may not know some other things—how to refine gold and play the flute and paint pictures—without being conscious of the fact. Certainly, as far as teaching goes, no one ever taught me these, no more than husbandry; while, as to using my own eyes, I have watched men working at the other arts no less than I have watched them till the soil.
(18) Lit. "all this while, I am thinking whether..."
Isch. Did I not tell you long ago that of all arts husbandry was the noblest, the most generous, just because it is the easiest to learn?
Soc. That it is without a doubt, Ischomachus. It seems I must have known the processes of sowing, without being conscious of my knowledge. (19)
(19) Or, "but for all my science, I was ignorant (of knowing my own knowledge)."
XIX
Soc. (continuing). But may I ask, is the planting of trees (1) a department in the art of husbandry?
(1) i.e. of fruit trees, the vine, olive, fig, etc.
Isch. Certainly it is.
Soc. How is it, then, that I can know about the processes of sowing and at the same time have no knowledge about planting?
Isch. Is it so certain that you have no knowledge?
Soc. How can you ask me? when I neither know the sort of soil in which to plant, nor yet the depth of hole (2) the plant requires, nor the breadth, or length of ground in which it needs to be embedded; (3) nor lastly, how to lay the plant in earth, with any hope of fostering its growth. (4)
(2) Reading {to phuto}, "nor yet how deep or broad to sink (the hole) for the plant." Holden (ed. 1886) supplies {bothunon}. Al. {bothron}. (3) See Loudon, "Encycl. of Agric." S. 407, ap. Holden: "In France plantations of the vine are made by dibbling in cuttings of two feet of length; pressing the earth firmly to their lower end, an essential part of the operation, noticed even by Xenophon." (4) Lit. "how, laid in the soil, the plant will best shoot forth or grow."
Isch. Come, then, to lessons, pupil, and be taught whatever you do not know already! You have seen, I know, the sort of trenches which are dug for plants?
Soc. Hundreds of times.
Isch. Did you ever see one more than three feet deep?
Soc. No, I do not think I ever saw one more than two and a half feet deep.
Isch. Well, as to the breadth now. Did you ever see a trench more than three feet broad? (5)
(5) Or, "width," "wide." The commentators cf. Plin. "H. N." xvii. 11, 16, 22; Columell. v. 5. 2; ib. iii. 15. 2; Virg. "Georg." ii. 288.
Soc. No, upon my word, not even more than two feet broad.
Isch. Good! now answer me this question: Did you ever see a trench less than one foot deep?
Soc. No, indeed! nor even less than one foot and a half. Why, the plants would be no sooner buried than dug out again, if planted so extremely near the surface.
Isch. Here, then, is one matter, Socrates, which you know as well as any one. (6) The trench is not to be sunk deeper than two feet and a half, or shallower than one foot and a half.
(6) Lit. "quite adequately."
Soc. Obviously, a thing so plain appeals to the eye at once.
Isch. Can you by eyesight recognise the difference between a dry soil and a moist?
Soc. I should certainly select as dry the soil round Lycabettus, (7) and any that resembles it; and as moist, the soil in the marsh meadows of Phalerum, (8) or the like.
(7) See Leake, "Topog. of Athens," i. 209. (8) Or, "the Phaleric marsh-land." See Leake, ib. 231, 427; ii. 9.
Isch. In planting, would you dig (what I may call) deep trenches in a dry soil or a moist?
Soc. In a dry soil certainly; at any rate, if you set about to dig deep trenches in the moist you will come to water, and there and then an end to further planting.
Isch. You could not put it better. We will suppose, then, the trenches have been dug. Does your eyesight take you further? (9) Have you noticed at what season in either case (10) the plants must be embedded?
(9) Lit. "As soon as the trenches have been dug then, have you further noticed..." (10) (1) The vulg. reading {openika... ekatera} = "at what precise time... either (i.e. 'the two different' kinds of) plant," i.e. "vine and olive" or "vine and fig," I suppose; (2) Breit. emend. {opotera... en ekatera} = "which kind of plant... in either soil..."; (3) Schenkl. etc., {openika... en ekatera} = "at what season... in each of the two sorts of soil..."
Soc. Certainly. (11)
(11) There is an obvious lacuna either before or after this remark, or at both places.
Isch. Supposing, then, you wish the plants to grow as fast as possible: how will the cutting strike and sprout, do you suppose, most readily?—after you have laid a layer of soil already worked beneath it, and it merely has to penetrate soft mould? or when it has to force its way through unbroken soil into the solid ground?
Soc. Clearly it will shoot through soil which has been worked more quickly than through unworked soil.
Isch. Well then, a bed of earth must be laid beneath the plant?
Soc. I quite agree; so let it be.
Isch. And how do you expect your cutting to root best?—if set straight up from end to end, pointing to the sky? (12) or if you set it slantwise under its earthy covering, so as to lie like an inverted gamma? (13)
(12) Lit. "if you set the whole cutting straight up, facing heavenwards." (13) i.e. Anglice, "like the letter {G} upon its back" {an inverted "upper-case" gamma looks like an L}. See Lord Bacon, "Nat. Hist." Cent. v. 426: "When you would have many new roots of fruit-trees, take a low tree and bow it and lay all his branches aflat upon the ground and cast earth upon them; and every twig will take root. And this is a very profitable experiment for costly trees (for the boughs will make stock without charge), such as are apricots, peaches, almonds, cornelians, mulberries, figs, etc. The like is continually practised with vines, roses, musk roses, etc."
Soc. Like an inverted gamma, to be sure, for so the plant must needs have more eyes under ground. Now it is from these same eyes of theirs, if I may trust my own, (14) that plants put forth their shoots above ground. I imagine, therefore, the eyes still underground will do the same precisely, and with so many buds all springing under earth, the plant itself, I argue, as a whole will sprout and shoot and push its way with speed and vigour.
(14) Lit. "it is from their eyes, I see, that plants..."
Isch. I may tell you that on these points, too, your judgment tallies with my own. But now, should you content yourself with merely heaping up the earth, or will you press it firmly round your plant?
Soc. I should certainly press down the earth; for if the earth is not pressed down, I know full well that at one time under the influence of rain the unpressed soil will turn to clay or mud; at another, under the influence of the sun, it will turn to sand or dust to the very bottom: so that the poor plant runs a risk of being first rotted with moisture by the rain, and next of being shrivelled up with drought through overheating of the roots. (15)
(15) Through "there being too much bottom heat." Holden (ed. 1886).
Isch. So far as the planting of vines is concerned, it appears, Socrates, that you and I again hold views precisely similar.
And does this method of planting apply also to the fig-tree? (I inquired).
Isch. Surely, and not to the fig-tree alone, but to all the rest of fruit-trees. (16) What reason indeed would there be for rejecting in the case of other plant-growths (17) what is found to answer so well with the vine?
(16) {akrodrua} = "edible fruits" in Xenophon's time. See Plat. "Criti." 115 B; Dem. "c. Nicostr." 1251; Aristot. "Hist. An." viii. 28. 8, {out akrodrua out opora khronios}; Theophr. "H. Pl." iv. 4. 11. (At a later period, see "Geopon." x. 74, = "fruits having a hard rind or shell," e.g. nuts, acorns, as opposed to pears, apples, grapes, etc., {opora}.) See further the interesting regulations in Plat. "Laws," 844 D, 845 C. (17) Lit. "planting in general."
Soc. How shall we plant the olive, pray, Ischomachus?
Isch. I see your purpose. You ask that question with a view to put me to the test, (18) when you know the answer yourself as well as possible. You can see with your own eyes (19) that the olive has a deeper trench dug, planted as it is so commonly by the side of roads. You can see that all the young plants in the nursery adhere to stumps. (20) And lastly, you can see that a lump of clay is placed on the head of every plant, (21) and the portion of the plant above the soil is protected by a wrapping. (22)
(18) Plat. "Prot." 311 B, 349 C; "Theaet." 157 C: "I cannot make out whether you are giving your own opinion, or only wanting to draw me out" (Jowett). (19) For the advantage, see "Geopon." iii. 11. 2. (20) Holden cf. Virg. "Georg." ii. 30—
quin et caudicibus sectis, mirabile dictu, truditur e sicco radix oleagina ligno.
The stock in slices cut, and forth shall shoot, O passing strange! from each dry slice a root (Holden).
See John Martyn ad loc.: "La Cerda says, that what the Poet here speaks of was practised in Spain in his time. They take the trunk of an olive, says he, deprive it of its root and branches, and cut it into several pieces, which they put into the ground, whence a root and, soon afterwards, a tree is formed." This mode of propagating by dry pieces of the trunk (with bark on) is not to be confounded with that of "truncheons" mentioned in "Georg." ii. 63.
(21) See Theophr. "H. Pl." ii. 2, 4; "de Caus." iii. 5. 1; "Geopon." ix. 11. 4, ap. Hold.; Col. v. 9. 1; xi. 2. 42. (22) Or, "covered up for protection."
Soc. Yes, all these things I see.
Isch. Granted, you see: what is there in the matter that you do not understand? Perhaps you are ignorant how you are to lay the potsherd on the clay at top?
Soc. No, in very sooth, not ignorant of that Ischomachus, or anything you mentioned. That is just the puzzle, and again I beat my brains to discover why, when you put to me that question a while back: "Had I, in brief, the knowledge how to plant?" I answered, "No." Till then it never would have struck me that I could say at all how planting must be done. But no sooner do you begin to question me on each particular point than I can answer you; and what is more, my answers are, you tell me, accordant with the views of an authority (23) at once so skilful and so celebrated as yourself. Really, Ischomachus, I am disposed to ask: "Does teaching consist in putting questions?" (24) Indeed, the secret of your system has just this instant dawned upon me. I seem to see the principle in which you put your questions. You lead me through the field of my own knowledge, (25) and then by pointing out analogies (26) to what I know, persuade me that I really know some things which hitherto, as I believed, I had no knowledge of.
(23) Or, "whose skill in farming is proverbial." (24) Lit. "Is questioning after all a kind of teaching?" See Plat. "Meno"; "Mem." IV. vi. 15. (25) It appears, then, that the Xenophontean Socrates has {episteme} of a sort. (26) Or, "a series of resemblances," "close parallels," reading {epideiknus}: or if with Breit. {apodeiknus}, transl. "by proving such or such a thing is like some other thing known to me already."
Isch. Do you suppose if I began to question you concerning money and its quality, (27) I could possibly persuade you that you know the method to distinguish good from false coin? Or could I, by a string of questions about flute-players, painters, and the like, induce you to believe that you yourself know how to play the flute, or paint, and so forth?
(27) Lit. "whether it is good or not."
Soc. Perhaps you might; for have you not persuaded me I am possessed of perfect knowledge of this art of husbandry, (28) albeit I know that no one ever taught this art to me?
(28) Or, "since you actually succeeded in persuading me I was scientifically versed in," etc. See Plat. "Statesm." 301 B; "Theaet." 208 E; Aristot. "An. Post." i. 6. 4; "Categ." 8. 41.
Isch. Ah! that is not the explanation, Socrates. The truth is what I told you long ago and kept on telling you. Husbandry is an art so gentle, so humane, that mistress-like she makes all those who look on her or listen to her voice intelligent (29) of herself at once. Many a lesson does she herself impart how best to try conclusions with her. (30) See, for instance, how the vine, making a ladder of the nearest tree whereon to climb, informs us that it needs support. (31) Anon it spreads its leaves when, as it seems to say, "My grapes are young, my clusters tender," and so teaches us, during that season, to screen and shade the parts exposed to the sun's rays; but when the appointed moment comes, when now it is time for the swelling clusters to be sweetened by the sun, behold, it drops a leaf and then a leaf, so teaching us to strip it bare itself and let the vintage ripen. With plenty teeming, see the fertile mother shows her mellow clusters, and the while is nursing a new brood in primal crudeness. (32) So the vine plant teaches us how best to gather in the vintage, even as men gather figs, the juiciest first. (33)
(29) Or, "gives them at once a perfect knowledge of herself." (30) Lit. "best to deal with her," "make use of her." (31) Lit. "teaches us to prop it." (32) Lit. "yet immature." (33) Or, "first one and then another as it swells." Cf. Shakespeare:
The mellow plum doth fall, the green sticks fast, Or being early pluck'd is sour to taste ("V. and A." 527).
XX
At this point in the conversation I remarked: Tell me, Ischomachus, if the details of the art of husbandry are thus easy to learn, and all alike know what needs to be done, how does it happen that all farmers do not fare like, but some live in affluence owning more than they can possibly enjoy, while others of them fail to obtain the barest necessities and actually run into debt?
I will tell you, Socrates (Ischomachus replied). It is neither knowledge nor lack of knowledge in these husbandmen which causes some to be well off, while others are in difficulties; nor will you ever hear such tales afloat as that this or that estate has gone to ruin because the sower failed to sow evenly, or that the planter failed to plant straight rows of plants, or that such an one, (1) being ignorant what soil was best suited to bear vines, had set his plants in sterile ground, or that another (2) was in ignorance that fallow must be broken up for purposes of sowing, or that a third (3) was not aware that it is good to mix manure in with the soil. No, you are much more likely to hear said of So-and-so: No wonder the man gets in no wheat from his farm, when he takes no pains to have it sown or properly manured. Or of some other that he grows no wine: Of course not, when he takes no pains either to plant new vines or to make those he has bear fruit. A third has neither figs nor olives; and again the self-same reason: He too is careless, and takes no steps whatever to succeed in growing either one or other. These are the distinctions which make all the difference to prosperity in farming, far more than the reputed discovery of any clever agricultural method or machine. (4)
(1) "Squire This." (2) "Squire That." (3) "Squire T'other." (4) There is something amiss with the text at this point. For emendations see Breit., Schenkl, Holden, Hartman.
You will find the principle applies elsewhere. There are points of strategic conduct in which generals differ from each other for the better or the worse, not because they differ in respect of wit or judgment, but of carefulness undoubtedly. I speak of things within the cognisance of every general, and indeed of almost every private soldier, which some commanders are careful to perform and others not. Who does not know, for instance, that in marching through a hostile territory an army ought to march in the order best adapted to deliver battle with effect should need arise? (5)—a golden rule which, punctually obeyed by some, is disobeyed by others. Again, as all the world knows, it is better to place day and night pickets (6) in front of an encampment. Yet even that is a procedure which, carefully observed at times, is at times as carelessly neglected. Once more: not one man in ten thousand, (7) I suppose, but knows that when a force is marching through a narrow defile, the safer method is to occupy beforehand certain points of vantage. (8) Yet this precaution also has been known to be neglected.
(5) See Thuc. ii. 81: "The Hellenic troops maintained order on the march and kept a look-out until..."—Jowett. (6) See "Cyrop." I. vi. 43. (7) Lit. "it would be hard to find the man who did not know." (8) Or, "to seize advantageous positions in advance." Cf. "Hiero," x. 5.
Similarly, every one will tell you that manure is the best thing in the world for agriculture, and every one can see how naturally it is produced. Still, though the method of production is accurately known, though there is every facility to get it in abundance, the fact remains that, while one man takes pains to have manure collected, another is entirely neglectful. And yet God sends us rain from heaven, and every hollow place becomes a standing pool, while earth supplies materials of every kind; the sower, too, about to sow must cleanse the soil, and what he takes as refuse from it needs only to be thrown into water and time itself will do the rest, shaping all to gladden earth. (9) For matter in every shape, nay earth itself, (10) in stagnant water turns to fine manure.
(9) Lit. "Time itself will make that wherein Earth rejoices." (10) i.e. "each fallen leaf, each sprig or spray of undergrowth, the very weeds, each clod." Lit. "what kind of material, what kind of soil does not become manure when thrown into stagnant water?"
So, again, as touching the various ways in which the earth itself needs treatment, either as being too moist for sowing, or too salt (11) for planting, these and the processes of cure are known to all men: how in one case the superfluous water is drawn off by trenches, and in the other the salt corrected by being mixed with various non-salt bodies, moist or dry. Yet here again, in spite of knowledge, some are careful of these matters, others negligent.
(11) See Anatol. "Geop." ii. 10. 9; Theophr. "de Caus." ii. 5. 4, 16. 8, ap. Holden. Cf. Virg. "Georg." ii. 238:
salsa autem tellus, et quae perhibetur amara frugibus infelix.
But even if a man were altogether ignorant what earth can yield, were he debarred from seeing any fruit or plant, prevented hearing from the lips of any one the truth about this earth: even so, I put it to you, it would be easier far for any living soul to make experiments on a piece of land, (12) than on a horse, for instance, or on his fellow-man. For there is nought which earth displays with intent to deceive, but in clear and simple language stamped with the seal of truth she informs us what she can and cannot do. (13) Thus it has ever seemed to me that earth is the best discoverer of true honesty, (14) in that she offers all her stores of knowledge in a shape accessible to the learner, so that he who runs may read. Here it is not open to the sluggard, as in other arts, to put forward the plea of ignorance or lack of knowledge, for all men know that earth, if kindly treated, will repay in kind. No! there is no witness (15) against a coward soul so clear as that of husbandry; (16) since no man ever yet persuaded himself that he could live without the staff of life. He therefore that is unskilled in other money-making arts and will not dig, shows plainly he is minded to make his living by picking and stealing, or by begging alms, or else he writes himself down a very fool. (17)
(12) Or, "this fair earth herself." (13) Or, "earth our mother reveals her powers and her impotence." (14) Lit. "of the good and the bad." Cf. Dem. "adv. Phorm." 918. 18. (15) Lit. "no accuser of." Cf. Aesch. "Theb." 439. (16) Reading, with Sauppe, {all' e georgia}, or if, with Jacobs, {e en georgia argia}, transl. "as that of idleness in husbandry." (17) Or, "if not, he must be entirely irrational." Cf. Plat. "Apol." 37 C.
Presently, Ischomachus proceeded: Now it is of prime importance, (18) in reference to the profitableness or unprofitableness of agriculture, even on a large estate where there are numerous (19) workfolk, (20) whether a man takes any pains at all to see that his labourers are devoted to the work on hand during the appointed time, (21) or whether he neglects that duty. Since one man will fairly distance ten (22) simply by working at the time, and another may as easily fall short by leaving off before the hour. (23) In fact, to let the fellows take things easily the whole day through will make a difference easily of half in the whole work. (24)
(18) Lit. "it made a great difference, he said, with regard to profit and loss in agriculture." (19) Or if, after Hertlein, adding {kai meionon}, transl. "workmen now more, now less, in number." (20) {ergasteron}, "poet." L. & S. cf. "Orph. H." 65. 4. See above, v. 15; xiii. 10. (21) Cf. Herod. II. ii. 2. (22) Or, "Why! one man in ten makes all the difference by..." {para} = "by comparison with." (23) Reading as vulg., or if {to me pro k.t.l.} transl. "by not leaving off, etc." (24) i.e. "is a difference of fifty per cent on the whole work."
As, on a walking-expedition, it may happen, of two wayfarers, the one will gain in pace upon the other half the distance say in every five-and-twenty miles, (25) though both alike are young and hale of body. The one, in fact, is bent on compassing the work on which he started, he steps out gaily and unflinchingly; the other, more slack in spirit, stops to recruit himself and contemplate the view by fountain side and shady nook, as though his object were to court each gentle zephyr. So in farm work; there is a vast difference as regards performance between those who do it not, but seek excuse for idleness and are suffered to be listless. Thus, between good honest work and base neglect there is as great a difference as there is between—what shall I say?—why, work and idleness. (26) The gardeners, look, are hoeing vines to keep them clean and free of weeds; but they hoe so sorrily that the loose stuff grows ranker and more plentiful. Can you call that (27) anything but idleness?
(25) Lit. "per 200 stades." (26) Or, "wholly to work and wholly to be idle." Reading as Sauppe, etc., or if with Holden, etc., {to de de kalos kai to kakos ergazesthai e epimeleisthai}, transl. "between toil and carefulness well or ill expended there lies all the difference; the two things are sundered as wide apart as are the poles of work and play," etc. A. Jacobs' emend. ap. Hartm. "An. Xen." p. 211, {to de de kakos ergazesthai e kakos epimeleisthai kei to kalos}, seems happy. (27) Or, "such a hoer aught but an idle loon."
Such, Socrates, are the ills which cause a house to crumble far more than lack of scientific knowledge, however rude it be. (28) For if you will consider; on the one hand, there is a steady outflow (29) of expenses from the house, and, on the other, a lack of profitable works outside to meet expenses; need you longer wonder if the field-works create a deficit and not a surplus? In proof, however, that the man who can give the requisite heed, while straining every nerve in the pursuit of agriculture, has speedy (30) and effective means of making money, I may cite the instance of my father, who had practised what he preached. (31)
(28) Cf. Thuc. v. 7; Plat. "Rep." 350 A; "Theaet." 200 B. (29) Or, "the expenses from the house are going on at the full rate," {enteleis}. Holden cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 1367: {ton misthon apodoso 'ntele}, "I'll have the arrears of seamen's wages paid to a penny" (Frere). (30) {anutikotaten}. Cf. "Hipparch," ii. 6. (31) Or, "who merely taught me what he had himself carried out in practice."
Now, my father would never suffer me to purchase an estate already under cultivation, but if he chanced upon a plot of land which, owing to the neglect or incapacity of the owner, was neither tilled nor planted, (32) nothing would satisfy him but I must purchase it. He had a saying that estates already under cultivation cost a deal of money and allowed of no improvement; and where there is no prospect of improvement, more than half the pleasure to be got from the possession vanishes. The height of happiness was, he maintained, to see your purchase, be it dead chattel or live animal, (33) go on improving daily under your own eyes. (34) Now, nothing shows a larger increase (35) than a piece of land reclaimed from barren waste and bearing fruit a hundredfold. I can assure you, Socrates, many is the farm which my father and I made worth I do not know how many times more than its original value. And then, Socrates, this valuable invention (36) is so easy to learn that you who have but heard it know and understand it as well as I myself do, and can go away and teach it to another if you choose. Yet my father did not learn it of another, nor did he discover it by a painful mental process; (37) but, as he has often told me, through pure love of husbandry and fondness of toil, he would become enamoured of such a spot as I describe, (38) and then nothing would content him but he must own it, in order to have something to do, and at the same time, to derive pleasure along with profit from the purchase. For you must know, Socrates, of all Athenians I have ever heard of, my father, as it seems to me, had the greatest love for agricultural pursuits.